新冠病毒与不可抗力
Jonathon D. Nelson
单位:Associate Attorney Gurstel Law Firm, P.C.
摘要:冠状病毒(COVID-19)无疑改变了我们与他人互动和建立关系的方式。个人和企业受到了巨大影响,迫使这两个群体迅速适应,与其相关的合同产生了无法履行的状况,在此情况下引入不可抗力规则就有着一定的意义。
关键词:冠状病毒; 不可抗力; 企业经营;合同义务
冠状病毒(COVID-19)无疑改变了我们与他人互动和建立关系的方式。个人和企业受到了巨大影响,迫使这两个群体迅速适应,否则将面临严重后果。个人必须在工作和健康风险之间建立可持续的平衡,以便维持生活水平;企业还必须创造这种平衡,以便能够继续为股东和利益相关者服务。比其他公司更僵硬的企业正在迅速实施必要的变革,他们不得不考虑其他方式来做生意。许多企业面临2019冠状病毒疾病的巨大改变,商业环境的一种选择是破产程序,无论是以破产、解散、破产或破产的形式进行。在某些情况下,企业可能能够控制其运营(如债务人占有),而在其他情况下,经验丰富的第三方将不得不接管(如破产受托人)。无论选择哪种程序,企业都很可能会为不可抗力辩护,以限制合同损失的责任。因此,律师和客户都必须了解不可抗力抗辩的工作原理。如果由于双方无法控制的合理不可预见事件而无法履行合同,则一方当事人可以免除履行合同义务,甚至可以寻求终止合同本身。合理不可预见事件的法律术语为“不可抗力”不可抗力抗辩源于普通法,并在联邦和州法律中得到普遍承认。
不可抗力在普通法中已经存在了足够长的时间,商业合同的当事人通常会包括不可抗力条款。该条款通常确定了一方为进行有效的不可抗力抗辩而必须满足的特定事件和缓解方法。例如,大多数条款识别由“天灾”引起的事件“天灾”通常被视为完全由地震、洪水或龙卷风等自然力造成的无法抵抗的事件。这一定义在法律上被扩大到包括所有例外的、不可避免的和不可抗拒的自然现象,这些现象的影响无法通过适当的谨慎或预见来预防或避免。《上帝的行为》,布莱克法律词典(2019年第11版)(引用《美国法典》第42卷第9601(1)条);另见FAR 52.212-4、52.249-8。一些条款确定了其他事件,如流行病、战争、灾难、海盗、政府法规、内乱和恐怖主义行为。条款甚至可能规定必须满足的事件的持续时间,以及向另一方发出事件通知的时间,以使条款生效。因此,在分析抗辩的适用性时,审查确切的合同语言非常重要。条款2019冠状病毒疾病2019冠状病毒疾病2019冠状病毒疾病可能是2019年,但世界卫生组织宣布的“COVID-19”是“大流行”,2020政府采取的随后的隔离行动可能会使COVID-19在合同的事件中被剥夺。这意味着政府有关隔离和关闭业务的规定可能允许一方成功地进行不可抗力抗辩。然而,应当指出的是,法院通常认为,一般经济困难或费用增加本身并不构成普通法中的限定事件。因此,必须解决预防、阻碍、拖延问题。2019冠状病毒疾病是如何预防、阻碍或延迟的?接下来的分析相对简单。主张不可抗力抗辩的一方有责任证明不可抗力事件已经发生,并且该事件是其无法履行合同义务的原因。根据适用于合同执行的法律,也可能要求主张方减轻事件的影响,这是彻底审查合同的另一个原因。如果有减轻的要求,确定适当减轻的举证责任通常由主张不可抗力抗辩的一方承担。减轻损失的合理步骤包括寻找替代方法以获得履行合同义务的好处,例如卖方为买方确定替代货物供应商。普通法的损害减轻原则也提供了许多在这种情况下被视为合理步骤的例子。当一方考虑采取合理步骤时,必须考虑缔约各方各自的利益;一方不应只关注自己的利益。这是因为减轻责任通常是双向的,这意味着主张不可抗力抗辩的一方不是唯一必须减轻责任的一方。
适用于大量合同的一项法律是《统一商法典》。UCC通常在私人合同中充当缺口填补者,并可能为政府合同各方提供指导。如果合同中没有不可抗力条款,则UCCsect;sect;2-613至2-615为因双方无过错而无法履行的销售合同各方提供指导。第2-613节允许在损失风险转移给买方之前,如果货物因双方无过错而造成全部伤亡,则合同无效。第2-614节和第2-615节允许因商业不可行而撤销合同,这是对因不履约方无法控制的情况而导致的不履约行为的免责。请注意,根据UCC和几乎所有的商业合同,因事件造成的任何短缺必须在客户之间公平分配;未能公平分配的一方将有可能失去对不可抗力的全部抗辩,而在政府合同中,未能合理分配也可能产生虚假索赔或多付的潜在责任。不幸的是,2019冠状病毒疾病似乎还没有出现在后视镜中。2019冠状病毒疾病的个人和企业将继续承担直接和间接后果,不断改变关系的动态。当关系变得敌对时,双方无法达成共同目标。2019冠状病毒疾病的原因是,双方应该考虑妥协,共同努力确保他们的关系能够存活。2019冠状病毒疾病的当事人和律师应积极评估合同,以确定适用的要求,以便他们可以准备解决和跟踪出现的不利情况。
外文文献出处:
COMMERCIAL LAW WORLD
外文文献原文:
The corona virus (COVID-19) has undoubtedly changed the ways that we interact with others and create relationships. Individuals and businesses have been greatly impacted, forcing both groups to adapt quickly or risk severe consequences. Individuals must create a sustainable balance between work and health risks so they can maintain their standard of living; businesses also have to create that balance so they can continue to serve their shareholders and stakeholders. Businesses more rigid than others are finding it difficult to rapidly implement necessary changes and they have been forced to consider alternative ways to do business. One alternative for many businesses faced with a dramatically altered commercial environment as a result of COVID-19 is an insolvency proceeding, whether in the form of winding-up, dissolution, receivership, or bankruptcy. In some situations, businesses may be able to keep control of their operations (e.g., debtors-in-possession), and in others, experienced third-parties will have to take over (e.g., bankruptcy trustees). Regardless of the proceeding chosen, it is very likely that businesses will be asserting the defense of force majeure to limit liability for contractual losses. As a result, it is important for both attorneys and clients to understand how the force majeure defense works.A party may be excused from performance of a contractual obligation, and even seek termination of the contract itself, where performance becomes impossible due to a reasonably unforeseeable event out of both partiesrsquo; control. The legal term for the reasonably unforeseeable event is “force majeure.” The defense of force majeure grew out of the common law and is generally recognized in both federal and state law.
Force majeure has had a long enough existence at common law that parties to commercial contracts will typically include a force majeure clause. The clause usually identities the specific events and methods for mitigation that must be met for a party to have a valid force majeure defense. For example, most clauses identify events caused by an “act of God.” An “act of God” is commonly defined as an overwhelming, unpreventable event caused exclusively by forces of nature, such as an earthquake, flood or tornado. The definition has been statutorily broadened to include all natural phenomena that are exceptional, inevitable, and irresistible, the effects of which could not be prevented or avoided by the exercise of due care or foresight. ACT OF GOD, Blacks Law Dictionary (11th ed. 2019) (citing 42 U.S.C. sect; 9601(1)); see also, FAR 52.212-4, 52.249-8. Some clauses identify other events, such as pandemics, war, disasters, piracy, government regulations, civil disorders, and acts of terrorism. The clauses may even prescribe the duration of the event that must be met, and the time for giving notice of the event to the other party, for the clause to take effect. Therefore it is very important to review the exact contractual language when analyzing the applicability of the defense. The language of the clause may not have considered COVID-19 to be a qualifying event in 2019, but the declaration of COVID-19 to be a “pandemic” by the World Health Organization and the subsequent quarantine actions taken by governments in 2020 may bring COVID-19 within the contractrsquo;s definition of an event. Meaning that government regulations to quarantine and close businesses may allow a party to successfully assert the force majeure defense. However, it should be noted that courts have routinely held that generalized economic hardship or increased expenses alone do not constitute a qualifying event in common law. Accordingly the question o
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不可抗力是应对新冠病毒引起的合同不能履行的解决之策吗?
Russell Lewis, Jonathan Havens and Cornelius Sweers
单位:the Houston office of Baker Botts LLP
摘要:尽管企业正在与2019年冠状病毒病(新冠病毒)作斗争——这是自第一次世界大战后西班牙流感爆发以来世界面临的最具挑战性的流行病——但它们的合同义务并未消失。然而,不可抗力可免除这些义务。但正如下文所述,不可抗力可能是一种有限的潜在解决方案。
关键词:民法; 合同不能履行; 新冠病毒;法律义务
- 不可抗力概述
不可抗力通常指因“天灾”(如飓风)或一方无法控制的人为事件(如战争)而免除履行合同的行为。在美国,不可抗力既可以作为对违反合同的肯定抗辩,也可以通过先发制人的宣告性判决行动来主张。大多数美国司法管辖区,包括田纳西州,首先考虑不可抗力条款的语言,仅使用普通法规则“填补”合同未提及的空白。然而,一些美国司法管辖区(尤其是纽约和加利福尼亚)通常会将额外的普通法要求解读为不可抗力条款;例如,引起不可抗力索赔的事件必须是“不可预见的”或“超出一方的合理控制”。虽然不可抗力条款从简短的样板到整页的定制条款各不相同,但条款通常包括:可能导致不可抗力事件的详细清单(有时明确包括流行病);对声称不可抗力的一方“超出合理控制范围”的其他事件的“全面”规定;要求声称不可抗力的一方通知对方。不可抗力的能否解决新冠病毒带来的问题?田纳西州州长要求声称不可抗力的一方在发生不可抗力事件的情况下尽合理努力履行。但即使不可抗力条款中明确列出了某一事件,为了成功地索赔不可抗力,通常必须阻止一方履行其义务。换句话说,在经济困难时期,不可抗力不是一张“免出狱”的牌。美国法院典型地认为,单独的经济困难不足以作为履行不可抗力条款的借口。
- 不可抗力在过去爆发的流行病引起的合同问题的适用先例
尽管有西班牙流感的历史,我们在任何美国司法管辖区都没有发现任何报告的病例,这些病例涉及到在人类人口中流行、大流行或疾病爆发的不可抗力。相反,斯潘-伊什流感时期的判例法侧重于当事人是否可以使用普通法不可能抗辩而非不可抗力来免除合同履行。因此,在流行病背景下处理不可抗力的少数案例都涉及家养动物的流行病(如禽流感、猪流感或类似疾病)。例如,在伦勃朗企业案中,法院认为鸡蛋生产商购买工业鸡蛋烘干机合同中的不可抗力条款不适用,因为2015年禽流感爆发并没有阻止生产商的表现(为烘干机支付现金),导致采购商淘汰了100多万只鸡,并将鸡蛋产量减少了50%。同样,在Macromex SRL,纽约南区确认了一项仲裁裁决,驳回了向罗马尼亚公司出售鸡肉合同中的不可抗力索赔,当罗马尼亚政府基于禽流感爆发(在鸡身上,而不是在人身上)对鸡实施进口禁令时。在拒绝卖方的不可抗力抗辩时,仲裁员指出,事实上,U.C.C.允许商业上合理的性能替代品,买方建议卖方将鸡肉运到附近不受进口禁令影响的国家。这几例涉及新冠病毒的流行,说明即使是在不可抗力和流行病的情况下,当事人也必须满足不可抗力条款的其他内容以确保免除救济。伦勃朗企业法院指出,尽管与不可抗力分析没有直接关系,但鸡蛋生产商“向买方宣布不可抗力,并开始按比例分销鸡蛋和鸡蛋产品。”法院还指出,伦勃朗企业的鸡蛋生产商“在很大程度上通过保险和政府付款获得了禽流感疫情造成的损失赔偿。”
- 新冠病毒疾病不可抗力评估的思考
在对流行病适用不可抗力条款的有限判例法中,法院似乎狭隘地适用不可抗力条款。如果新冠病毒对一方的业绩有直接影响,不可抗力可能会影响业绩(取决于具体条款,包括是否包括EpIDIM),如鸡蛋生产商成功向其鸡蛋买家申报不可抗力。相反,新冠病毒影响到第二方的绩效,比如削弱一方的支付能力,不可抗力可能不会为其行为辩解。案例分析还表明新冠病毒分析的法院也可以考虑其他因素,如一方在履行一项流行病时履行合同义务的能力,如新冠病毒。企业可能有新冠病毒保险的保险。同样,政府可能新冠病毒。然而,与新冠病毒的情况不同,政府采取行动应对自西班牙流感以来没有看到的新冠病毒流行,如:(1)就地命令,(2)禁止整个类别的企业(如酒吧和餐馆)经营,并发布建筑禁令,紧急声明等。例如,如果政府发布了施工暂停令,则总承包商和分包商可能有理由支持其合同项下的不可抗力索赔和延期。随着政府采取越来越积极的措施来减缓新冠病毒的蔓延,我们预计许多企业将无法以某种方式形成他们的合同义务。总而言之,根据不可抗力条款的特殊语言,由于新冠病毒的原因未能履行合同义务,可以免除。但是新冠病毒的预防和预防工作没有其他合理的选择。新冠病毒中合同的缔约方也应准备证明它使用尽职调查来克服新冠病毒的影响。
外文文献出处:
Tennessee Bar Journal. May2020, Vol. 56 Issue 5, p20-22. 3p.
外文文献原文:
A Brief Overview of Force Majeure
Force majeure generally refers to the excusing of performance under contracts because of either “acts of God” (e.g. hurricanes) or human events beyond a partyrsquo;s control (i.e. wars). In the United States, force majeure can be asserted either as an affirmative defense to breach of contract, or by a preemptive declaratory judgment action. Most U.S. jurisdictions, including Tennessee,look first to the language of the force majeure clause and only use common law rules to “fill in the gaps” where the contract is silent. However, some U.S. jurisdictions (notably New York and California) will typically read additional common law requirements into force majeure clauses; for example, the event giving rise to the force majeure claim must be “unforeseeable” or “beyond the reasonable control” of the party. While force majeure clauses vary from short boilerplate to fullpage bespoke provisions, clauses typically include:bull;a laundry list of events which may give rise to force majeure (sometimes expressly including epidemics);bull;a “catch-all” provision for other events“beyond the reasonable control” of the party asserting force majeure;bull;a requirement that the party claiming force majeure give notice to the counterparty; andCOVID-19 Force Majeure to the Rescue? FEATURE STORY While businesses are battling the corona virus disease 2019 (COVID-19) — the most challenging epidemic the world has faced since the Spanish Flu outbreak that occurred after World War I —their contractual obligations do not disappear. Force majeure may, however, excuse those obligations. But as discussed below, force majeure may be a limited potential solution, rather than a panacea.By Russell Lewis, Jonathan Havens and Cornelius Sweers with Tennessee updates by Charles H. Barnett IVMAY2020TENNESSEEBARJOURNAL | 21bull;a requirement that the party claiming force majeure uses reasonable diligence to perform despite the force majeure event.But even if an event is expressly listed in the force majeure clause, to successfully claim force majeure, a party typically must be prevented from performing its obligations by the event.In other words, force majeure is not a “get out of jail free” card in tough economic times. U.S. courts typically hold that economic hardship standing alone is insufficient to excuse performance under a force majeure clause.
Precedent of Force Majeure in Past Outbreaks and Epidemics
Despite the history of the Spanish Flu, we could find no reported cases from any U.S. jurisdiction that addressed force majeure in the context of an epidemic, pandemic or disease outbreak in the human population. Instead, caselaw from the time of the Spanish Flu focused on whether parties were excused from contractual performance using the common law impossibility defense rather than force majeure. So, the few cases addressing force majeure in the context of epidemics all concern epidemics in domesticated animals (such as avian flu, swine flu or similar diseases).For instance, in Rembrandt Enterprises, the court reasoned that a force majeure clause in a contract for an egg producer to purchase an industrial egg dryer would not apply, as the producerrsquo;s performance (paying cash for the dryer) was not prevented by the 2015 avian flu outbreak that caused the purchaser to eliminate over a million chickens and cut egg production by 50 percent.Likewise, in Macromex SRL, the Southern District of New York confirmed an arbitration award rejecting a force majeure claim in a contract for the sale of chicken to a Romanian company, when the Romanian government i
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