对大学物理教学的几点看法外文翻译资料

本科毕业设计（论文）

外文翻译

对大学物理教学的几点看法

作者: Willard J. Fisher

国籍：美国

出处: Science, New Series, Vol. 47, No. 1208 (Feb. 22, 1918), pp. 182-185

中文译文：

物理学最初是整个科学的一部分，它是经过专门化而来的，围绕一个中心观点，包含了能量与物质、运动、热和电的关系；它在农业、天文学、化学、生物和地球科学以及它们在工程和科学中的应用之间，没有明显的界限。所有这些都能从中提取基础数据，并由此不断发展出新的分支机构。这一发展的历史是非常有趣和有指导意义的；它构成了人类智力发展的一个阶段，所有兴趣高于面包和黄油水平的学生都应该知道这一点。

据说科学是常识。这是不完全正确的，因为常识是由共同的经验产生的，很难处理不寻常或新的情况。由此产生了许多人认为物理学是一门有说服力的学科。它涉及到各种各样的事实，从承受摩擦和管道中的水流到无线电波的飞行和星云的旋转，它必须采用一种不可能是一般经验的观点；因为对这一巨大范围内容的大多数观测都不是一般的观测，也不是由普通人能随便观测得到的。例如，牛顿的三个运动定律并不是常识性的表达；否则，它们就不会被牛顿用来陈述。众所周知，他们没有与共同的经验相冲突；他们包括了这一点；但普通人却没有发现这些所需的不寻常的天文和实验室经验。因此，基于它们的力学似乎陈旧、干燥、形而上学并且与经验无关。

物理学科如此庞大，定义不明确，在某种程度上脱离了一般经验，只有一部分可以在基础课程中教授。这一部分的内容必须从两个方面来决定：对学生来说，这一部分似乎是有价值的，他必须扩大其经验范围，使他觉得已经发现的伟大的一般规律是从物质的行为中自然产生的。对一个学生来说，一门课程的主题必须建立在他已经知道的基础上，并且必须对他必须解决的问题有明显的影响。比如他有了撬棍、船、汽车、电话的经验，那么从这个知识开始，把它们统一起来就是很明智的做法了；他知道他必须用滑轮、液压锤、照相机或无线仪器来解决实践中的问题；他也应该看到他的物理使他有能力做到这一点。

在大众教学中，比如在大多数美国学校教学，教师的目标必须是班上的普通人。覆盖面和速度，以及相对的困难度，必须取决于这些普通人的抱负；这些抱负只能由“感觉”来决定，并且每年都在变化。虽然这个问题对于这里的治疗来说太过广泛，但应该注意的是问题决不是一个简单的问题，教师只是比赛中的一个要素，学生是其中的中心。他和他的课程不可能总是希望在活动、游戏的巨大压力下掌握学生的注意力，“Wein，Weib und Gesang。”要在这场比赛中发挥作用并取得任何真正意义上的成功，意味着老师必须认识到这种情况，并准备好发挥自己的作用以及提供合理的压力。在物理教学中，人们容易接受或放弃这一概念，这是他们的工作，而在洗头用品和汽车销售中，这一概念同样不适用。我认为，与大学教师相比，大学管理部门对这一点的不重视更是有过错的，尽管双方都可以辩解些什么。

小学作业的教学方法一般有讲课法、课本学习法和实验法，每一种教学方法都有其特点、局限性和难点。

物理讲课是在讲演者的指导下进行的定性或半定量的实验，而不需要提供技巧性的启发。这种方法是唯一一种对原始研究或最新进展进行阐述的方法，许多实验在这样的情况下都是有价值的，而在其他情况下则不那么有价值；受众的或多或少的被动态度是最大的弱点。对于开课或普通课程来说，这是一个很好的方法，教学技巧，如书面笔记和测验，有助于减少被动导致的昏睡。然而，每一次演讲对演讲者来说可能比对任何听者都更有价值。每一个使用这种方法，并要求在课程上完成书面笔记的教师，都应该仔细阅读其中的一些笔记，他将学到一些关于他自己讲座的价值观。

由于不注意细节，讲课实验的演示经常被削弱。一个只有少数观众能看到的实验被浪费了，尽管它可能使演讲者高兴，因为他的工作是“结束它”，就像他和听众之间有脚灯一样。设置好仪器是不够的，必须开展起来；实验走是不够的，观众必须看到；临界点的弱光、玻璃表面的闪光和眩光、途中的支撑物等，有时会阻碍观众的观看。在提前进行实验的同时，讲师应该从观众视角和最不利的角度来看待实验，以纠正这些弱点。

背诵法与实验法相结合，对课堂记忆的要求比讲座法更高。我不认为任何学生都应该被允许参加一个纯粹的基础物理课本课程；实验应该总是伴随着背诵。

对一本书的研究、问题的解决、问题的回答，既发挥了原创性，又发挥了技巧性；对实验的解释和描述，不仅使人们对实验室的工作有了了解，而且使人们对实验和观察的结果有条不紊，但因为难度、费用和时间长度是有要求的，只有少数人能做到这一点。

实验室工作的对象有两个：阐明（不演示）自然规律，并教授实验技术。后者显然只是次要的，但没有它，实验说明的是人性的易错性，而不是自然规律，所以必须付出很多时间和努力。以前人们普遍认为，在实验室里，学生应该自己重新发现自然规律，在一些年轻的工作时间里做一些2000年来最伟大的思想才逐渐完成的事情。现在没人会想到：机器、运动、热和电的规律只能在学生实验室里解释，而不是被发现。初学者不仅要做说明性的观察，还必须学会如何做。观察的技术和商店的技术一样真实；就像在木匠铺、锻炉或机房里一样，经验证明是好的材料和金属的处理方法不仅要教，而且要坚持，所以实验室的技术必须执行；仪器的设置、测量的制作、测量的解释，所有这些都必须根据经验发展出的良好方法来完成。因此，必须对学生手中的工作有相当明确的指示，不仅要处理一般仪器，还要处理完成工作的实验室仪器。值得怀疑的是，一般的实验室手册是否成功；如果所有的实验室都配备相同的仪器模式，那么就有可能编写一份手册来服务于所有的实验室：根据实际情况，不同的实验室都有这样不同的设备，这些设备是继承和构造的，它们的详细说明初学者必须在每个机构都是独一无二的。当然，这并不意味着手册不能以书的形式书写（尽管我认为活页系统更好，因为它更灵活），但是适合一个地方的条件的书很难适合另一个地方的条件。

观察技术不仅是一个长期的历史发展的结果，同样的，解释观察技术也是如此。对于基础实验室，应考虑到这一点，制定实验方向，坚持良好的还原方法和合理的准确度标准。当然，准确度不能很高，通常是百分之一。对学生的学习很有好处，而且在计划周密的实验中，对所需的插图也足够了。比这更好是很难想象的，因为初学者的设备不能有很多改进，而且如果工作人员不花大部分时间进行维修，也必须是相当可靠的。在大多数情况下，对于这样的准确度以及为了说明的目的，仔细的滑块计算和仔细使用绘图纸都是非常好的：我没有发现普通学生比他更能学习这些材料的准确使用，除非他必须付出努力并教人如何使用。

由于实验室工作的目标是说明自然规律，因此，不应通过计算云、大量曲线或仪器来解释结果。有时我不得不强迫学生通过实验室的指导，以克服这些缺点，阅读他们的报告使我相信简单的实验方法，直接而有计划的计算和曲线的使用，当曲线是最短的方法来说明事实时，是他们需要教给他们的。非常痛苦。在小学实验室，忙碌的工作没有地方。特别是我确信在某些情况下，如果学生被迫用最小二乘法计算结果，这样劳动的结果会更加糟糕，因为在观察条件下，应用程序的某些基本假设是不合理的。许多年前，人们就在自然界中指出了这种情况的存在；梅里曼已经处理了它们的理论和计算；只要看一眼他的论文，就会使任何人相信这种处理在基础实验室中都没有地位。

当学生在实验室技术知识上相处融洽时，他应该着手解决涉及阅读和高级观察的问题，但一般来说，只有当本科生因此而受宠若惊时，才应称之为研究。我认为，在重复古典实验中使用精密仪器对高年级本科生来说，要比他和一个手边的人进行大量的“研究”好得多，以向他展示这是如何进行的，也许对老师来说也并不坏。学习和掌握一系列经典实验的原始文章，以及对实验工作的监督，对于任何一位物理教师都是非常有价值的。在成本不断上升的日子里，物理老师和其他人一样，应该把对废品的处理和管理问题放在心上，就像我曾经听B.K.爱默生教授对一个学生说的那样。在对错误处理晶体样本的轻微指责过程中，物品是要用完，但不能销毁；仪器也是如此。我认为解决这个问题的最好办法是让每个学生对他所使用的仪器负个人责任，并记账。不管是谁造成的伤害，以统一的费率评估所有学生的实验室费用的计划，在我看来，浪费实验室物品犹如公路抢劫，我毫不怀疑学生现在也有同样的感受。记账有些麻烦。当然，但这让每个人都感到有责任感和偶然性，正如我从经验中证明的那样。

外文原文：

SOME OPINIONS ON COLLEGE PHYSICS TEACHING

Originally the whole of science, physics has come by specialization to have for a central interest the relations of energy to matter, motion, heat and electricity; it lies, not sharply bounded, among astronomy, chemistry, the biological and earth sciences, and their applications in engineering and agriculture.From it all these draw fundamental data. and from it new branches continually develop. The history of this development is very interesting and instructive; it forms one phase of the intellectual development of humanity, and should be known to all students whose interests are at all higher than the bread-and-butter level.

It has been said that science is common sense. That is incompletely true; for common sense results from common experience,and can hardly deal with uncommon or new situations. From this arises one of the diffculties which to many people make physics arepulsive subject. It deals with facts of all sorts, from bearing friction and the flow of water in pipes to the flight of wireless waves and the rotation of nebulae, and has to adopt a viewpoint which can not be that of common experience; for observations on most of this vast range are not commonly made, and not by common people. Newtons three laws of motion, for example, are not expressions of common sense; otherwise they would not have been reserved for Newton to state. They areknown not to be in conflict with common experience; they include it; but the average person has not had the uncommon astronomical and laboratory experiences necessary for their discovery or appreciation. Hence the mechanics based on them seems stale and dry, metaphysical, out of connection with experience.

The subject of physics being thus vast, not clearly defined and to a certain extent removed from common experience, only a part of it can be taught in elementary courses. What this part shall be has to be decided with an eye on two things; it must seem worth while to the student, and it must expand his horiz

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外文原文：

SOME OPINIONS ON COLLEGE PHYSICS TEACHING

Originally the whole of science, physics has come by specialization to have for a central interest the relations of energy to matter, motion, heat and electricity; it lies, not sharply bounded, among astronomy, chemistry, the biological and earth sciences, and their applications in engineering and agriculture.From it all these draw fundamental data. and from it new branches continually develop. The history of this development is very interesting and instructive; it forms one phase of the intellectual development of humanity, and should be known to all students whose interests are at all higher than the bread-and-butter level.

It has been said that science is common sense. That is incompletely true; for common sense results from common experience,and can hardly deal with uncommon or new situations. From this arises one of the diffculties which to many people make physics arepulsive subject. It deals with facts of all sorts, from bearing friction and the flow of water in pipes to the flight of wireless waves and the rotation of nebulae, and has to adopt a viewpoint which can not be that of common experience; for observations on most of this vast range are not commonly made, and not by common people. Newtons three laws of motion, for example, are not expressions of common sense; otherwise they would not have been reserved for Newton to state. They areknown not to be in conflict with common experience; they include it; but the average person has not had the uncommon astronomical and laboratory experiences necessary for their discovery or appreciation. Hence the mechanics based on them seems stale and dry, metaphysical, out of connection with experience.

The subject of physics being thus vast, not clearly defined and to a certain extent removed from common experience, only a part of it can be taught in elementary courses. What this part shall be has to be decided with an eye on two things; it must seem worth while to the student, and it must expand his horizon of experience, so that the great general laws which have been discovered shall seem to him to spring naturally from the behavior of matter.To seem worth while to a student, the subjectmatter of a course must build upon what he already knows, and must have evident bearing upon the problems which he knows he will have to solve. He has had experience with crowbars, boats, automobiles, telephones; it is wise to start out with this knowledge and unify it;he knows he must solve problems in practise,with pulleys, hydraulic rams, cameras or wireless instruments; he should see that his physics is leading to an ability to do these things.

In mass teaching, such as teaching in most American institutions must be, the aim of the teacher must be at the average man in the class. The ground covered, the rate at which it is covered, and its relative difficulty, must depend on the ambitions of this average man;these can be determined only by 'feeling of 'the class, and change from year to year.While this matter is one too extensive for treatment here, it should be noted that the problem is by no means a simple one; the teacher is only one element in the competition of which the student is the center. and he and his course can not always hope to master the students attention against the intense pressure of fraternities, games, 'Wein, Weiberund Gesang.' To play a part in this competition and win any real success implies that the teacher must realize the situation and be ready himself to exert a sensible pressure. The easygoing notion that they may take it or leave it-thats their business-is as much out of place in the teaching of physics as it is in the selling of hair-wash and automobiles. I believe that college administrations are more at fault in their ill appreciation of this than are college teachers, though something can be said on both sides.

The teaching methods usually adopted for elementary work are lectures, text-book study with problem-solving, and laboratory work.Each has its peculiarities, its limitations and difficulties.

Physics lectures are carried on with experiments, qualitative or semi-quantitative, which the audience observes under the guidance of the speaker, without having to supply skill orinitiative. This method is the only one for the exposition of original research or recent progress, many experiments are valuable when taken up thus and less so otherwise; the more or less passive attitude of the audience is the great weakness. It does very well as an easy way for beginning or general classes, pedagogical tricks, like written notes and quizzes, help to diminish somewhat the somnolence due to passivity. However, every lecture is probably more valuable to the speaker than to any of his hearers. Every teacher who uses this method,and requires the completion of written note-books on the course, should read some of these notebooks with some care. He will learn something about the value to the audience of his own lectures.

The presentation of lecture experiments is often weakened by inattention to the details of lighting. An experiment which only a few of the audience can see is wasted, however it may please the lecturer, for it is his business to“ get it over” just as much as if there were footlights between him and his hearers. It is not enough to set the apparatus up-it must go; and it is not enough that the experiment go-the audience must see it; and weak lighting of the critical point, glitter and glare on glass surfaces, supports in the way, etc, sometimes hinder the audience from seeing. While the experiment is being tried out in advance the lecturer should view it from the audience space and from the most disadvantageous points, to correct such weaknesses.

The combined recitation and laborator method makes greater demands on the memers of a class than the lecture method. I do not believe that any student should be allowed

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