老年人正式和非正式社区照顾:美国和英国的比较分析
摘要:支持体弱长者具有国际的和日益增加的重要性。本文比较了ADL援助收据、家庭健康方面的援助,以及在美国(N=1847,女性80%,)和英国(N=1847,女性57%)年龄在70岁及以上功能受损人群的未被满足的需求。英国的非正式和正式援助水平最高,未被满足需求率没有因跨越测量ADL域而不同。正式和非正式的援助是成正相关的,它具有与补充性非正式观点一致的交界处。在英国和美国的少数人独自接受过正规的服务。结果表明,以社区为基础的支持是不能代替家庭的作用,并讨论了家庭和经济政策因素对社区援助的影响。
关键词:家庭照顾;以社区为基础的长期照顾;老年学;跨文化;未满足需要
跨国家的以社区为基础的长期照顾视角
社区照顾在西方工业化社会日益盛行,如美国和英国,迫使决策者重新审视正式和非正式的长期照顾来源之间的重要联系。随着两国人口老龄化,确保给年老体弱者提供卫生和社会照顾方面的政策越来越重要。虽然政策的作用随着时间的推移发生了变化,但以社区为基础的健康和社会保健服务仍然是现代福利国家及其他领域的重要组成部分,如筹资机制、管理和交付结构以及管理方案都在40年来经历根本性变化。长期照顾的结构部分也没能逃脱,而且不可避免地受到更广泛的社会和经济压力。
英国和美国的非正式家庭照顾政策特别是家庭和社区照顾在维护老年人权益方面扮演着非常重要的角色,已经有公众关心那些在为老人的健康和社会保健发挥重大作用的非正式照顾者和建议的消失,然而在所有西方民主国家,非正式照顾仍然是老年人照顾剩余的最大的来源。
目前促使老年人焦虑的大部分原因是健康和社会保健的成本上升,假如他们的养老需求不得不较大程度上依赖家庭来得以满足,然而家庭的自身能力也受到了人口变化的挑战。Zarit 和Eggebeen(1995)最近确定了几个可能威胁到体弱长者家庭支持的潜在趋势,一些最显著的发展趋势包括预期寿命的提高、与之相随的残疾风险增加、家庭规模变小、妇女提高劳动参与率、高离婚率和高同居率、急诊住院时间缩短等因素都可能改变老年人的需求和亲属支持潜在的利用率。
美国和英国的比较
在美国,医疗保健是由医疗保险资助;在英国,医疗保健是由一般税收资助。在美国,医疗保健是一种保险制度,是为老年人提供医疗保健的医疗保险计划,主要涵盖急症护理,而不是LTC(克拉克,1996)。医疗救助制度,一个与联邦福利计划相匹配的福利计划,给中低收入的老年人、盲人、残疾人或者家庭成员抚养儿童的医疗援助。它资助以家庭和社区为基础的照顾,其中包括家庭健康照料,个人护理和以家庭、社区为基础的减免服务。家庭保健服务通常覆盖家庭健康状况在同一级家庭的医疗保险,并给一些低收入、老年慢性病患者提供护理服务。个人医疗护理服务包括半熟练和非熟练的服务,如如厕、穿衣、洗澡援助,必须在服务提供者可接受的照顾计划之内,这些计划的实施使得功能受损的老年人可以住在家里。服务提供的最后一部分,如个案管理、个人护理、家庭主妇和家务服务,以及临时护理以社区和家庭为基础减免,这些老年人是否进入养老院由功能障碍和缺乏正规支持的程度决定。
英国的健康护理体系是普遍性税收资助。英国医院、其他医疗机构的长期护理服务资金来自一般性税收。由国民健康服务(NHS)给长期住院者提供资助。为老人提供长期护理的责任是沿着健康和社会保健线划分。以家庭和社区为基础的的长期护理(即医疗成分,包括看望护士和理疗)是由NHS援助,而长期的社会关怀(即个人护理成分),如提供如厕、换衣、洗澡和食物的援助由地方当局(及地方政府)提供。英国也有非常依赖他人的老年人的支付现金津贴系统,并给老年人照顾者提供微不足道的津贴。
英国和美国这两个国家的医疗保健系统允许对LTC政策功效的某些问题进行测试。尽管美国联邦没有明确的LTC政策,但每个州都在制定和实施以家庭和社区为基础的体弱老人照顾模式方面取得长足的进步。在英国,国民健康服务和社区照顾法案(NHSCCA,1993)建立了关于向体弱老年人提供健康和社会服务的国家政策。社区照顾的照顾成分是由国民健康服务(NHS)和地方政府的社会关怀(LAS)组织。
总之,影响美国和英国LTC服务的5个关键领域主要有:a)人口老龄化;b)社会和文化变革;c)健康和社会保健规定;d)给予照顾的优势;e)混合经济型的照顾(即照顾福利的多元化)。
非正式支持模式
非正式支持模式已经发展到可以预测谁最有可能为老人提供支持去赡养老人,而不是确定实际支持的相关性。Shanas(1979)认为分级替代原则可以在老人的非正式网络中运行。老年人愿意得到关系亲密的家庭成员的支持:配偶第一,其次是成年子女、兄弟姐妹、远房亲戚,最后是朋友和邻居。Chappell(1990)和Tennstedt等还提出在同一个家庭的个体是下一个最有可能提供帮助的。
Litwak ,Kulis 和希尔弗斯坦认为,与老年人需要的援助相匹配的是个体提供给他们的援助。朋友、邻居可能以最小的援助满足老年人的需求,如购物或者交通运送。家庭成员将更深入掌握需要的帮手。
正式的支持模式
安德森·纽曼范式在预测正式服务使用上占主导地位。这个视角指出有使用服务意向的个人因素(如年龄、性别、受教育程度和婚姻状况)、个人使用服务的因素因素(如获得运输工具和收入)和决定服务需求的因素(如ADL限制和存在的健康问题)。
美国和英国在正式家庭健康服务使用的前期工作是受每个因素影响的混合支持。证据还表明使用正规家庭照顾的老年人口的比例在这两个国家是相似的(Wistow,1996;OECD,1994)。
正式—非正式相结合的照顾模式
正式支持补充了非正式支持(斯托勒,1989)。家庭照顾者寻求正规的服务来向生病的亲戚一样照顾他或她,为他们增加的需求提供更多的支持。因此,期待接受呈正相关的正式和非正式支持。从这个角度来看,家庭是不能协助提供支持(如由于工作和家庭的竞争责任),还有人认为当家庭没有足够的技能来协助老年人,如提供专业的医疗服务;或者高体力要求的任务,如洗澡和如厕时应在家庭领域补充提供正式服务。(Noelker 和贝斯,1989;希尔弗斯坦和Litwak,1993)
由于某些护理需求不容易被正规提供,所以一些水平的护理主要由正式部门提供。这是典型由NHS老年单位和养老机构提供的照顾。(理查兹等人,1996)。此外,残疾等级需要较低程度护理可以在家庭或照顾机构提供,这种划分与社区照顾的根本改变是可能的,他们环境中被照顾的人口比例持续增加是极有可能的。(Richards等,1996)由于一些照顾工作的性质,一些专业化程度可能需每个部门提供工作,这个过程被称为双专业化(Litwak,1985)。
除了自然的照顾任务,给一定等级的残疾人提供的服务类型取决于:(a)照顾接受者和照顾者的特点;(b)照顾接受者与照顾者间的互动;(c)正规部门与非正规部门的关系;(d)非正式照顾的相对成本和相对正规的质量。(丹顿,1997;理查兹,1996)
使用正规服务和非正式照顾的决定因素
正式和非正式的照顾研究表明:能力功能减少、高龄和孤寡老人都与使用家庭照顾成正相关。被照顾者的人口学特征,如种族、性别、受教育程度和社会经济地位,也直接或间接通过对被照顾者功能状态的影响影响着照顾的使用或者正规护理组支持网络的可用性。比如收入,已经与多个正式服务的接收和少量非正式护理的接收有关。此外,非正式照顾的可用性与接受任何照顾和大概率非正式照顾相联系,但是它在接受正式照顾的结果证明方面是混乱的。
老年人个人和家庭残疾水平会影响对所提供护理的类型和数量有要求(理查兹等,1996)。照顾传送也受供给限制的影响。例如,家庭照顾中可能有严重残疾,这可能会导致照顾成本过高。照顾的提供可能受当地权威实施的照顾评估机制的影响,这些规则决定进入特殊照顾的水平和因决策独立而全国各地照顾因地区而异。
对非正式照顾的预测。非正式援助水平受下面三大因素的影响:a)老年人的援助需求;b)老年人的支持网络,包括使用正式服务的特征;c)非正式人员的其他责任(斯托勒,1989)。“非正式支持最大的预测是一个非正式网络的可用性将为健康(需要)衰退提供帮助,特别是配偶或子女(查普尔,1991)。和为恶化的健康(需要)”功能状态影响老年人帮助的需求(包括正式的和非正式的)。功能限制的风险随着年龄的增长而增加。老年人面临与健康的限制,需要越来越多的援助留在社区。(Stoller,1989)
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Formal and Informal Community Care to Older Adults: Comparative Analysis of the United States and Great Britain
ABSTRACT: Support to frail elders is of international and growing importance. This article compared receipt of assistance with ADL limitations, home health help, any assistance received, and unmet needs in functionally impaired individuals aged 70 years old or older in the United States (n = 1847, 80% women, Mage = 80 years) and Great Britain (n = 1203, 57% women, Mage = 78 years). Informal and formal assistance levels were higher in Great Britain, and rates of unmet need did not differ across ADL domains measured. Receipt of formal and informal care were associated positively, which is consistent with both supplementary and complementary perspectives on the formal-informal care interface. Few individuals in either country received formal services alone. Results suggest that community-based formal support does not substitute for family help. Implications for family and economic policy are discussed.
KEY WORDS: family care giving, community-based long-term care, gerontology, cross-
cultural, unmet need.
Community-Based Long-Term Care from a Cross-National Perspective
The increasing prevalence of community care policy in western industrialized societies, such as the United States and Great Britain,has forced policy-makers to re-examine the vital link between formal and informal sources of long-term care. Along with aging of the populations in both countries, policies which ensure the continued delivery of health and social care to frail elderly people are increasingly important in the policy domain. Although its role has changed over time,delivery of community-based health and social care continues to be a vital part of the modern welfare state and its sub-components. For example, funding mechanisms, management and delivery structures,and training programs all have undergone fundamental changes over the past forty years. Structural components of long-term care have not escaped nor been insulated from broader social and economic pressures.
Of particular importance regarding home- and community-based care in the United States and home care policy in Britain is the extent to which the informal sector plays a vital role in the maintenance of elders within the community. There have been public concerns about the disappearance of informal caregivers and suggestions that the formal sector play an increased role in providing health and social care to elderly people. However, informal care to elders remains the single largest source of care in all western democratic nations (e.g.Tester, 1996).
Much of the current concern over caring is driven by anxieties over the rising costs of health and social care of older people. The assumption is that their needs will have to be met by a greater reliance on the family. However, the capacity of the family is itself threatened by changing demographics. Zarit and Eggebeen (1995) recently identified several trends which may threaten the potential availability of family support for frail elders. Some of the most significant trends include increased life expectancy with its concomitant increased risk of disability, smaller family size, increased labor force participation among women, high rates of divorce and cohabitation, and shorter acute care hospital stays. Each of these factors may alter the needs of older adults or the potential availability of kin support.
Comparison of the United States and Great Britain
In the U.S., health care is funded from health insurance, and in G.B. it is funded from general taxation. The Medicare program in the U.S.,which is an insurance system providing health care for the elderly,covers primarily acute care rather than LTC (Clark, 1996). Medicaid,a federal-state matching entitlement program, provides medical assistance to low-income persons who are aged, blind, disabled, or members of families with dependent children. It finances home- and community-based care, including home health care, personal care, and home- and community-based waiver services. Home health services usually are the same set of services covered under the Medicare home health benefit and are available to some low-income elderly patients with chronic care needs. Medicaid personal care services, including semi-skilled or non-skilled services, such as assistance with toileting, dressing, and bathing, must be prescribed by a physician under the recipients plan of care. These plans of care are for functionally impaired elderly persons living at home. The final component, home-and community-based waivers, provides services, such as case management, personal care, homemaker and chore services, and respite care. These assist elderly persons who are at risk of entering a nursing home, as determined by functional impairments and lack of informal supports.
The health care system in G.B. is universal and tax-funded. Funding for hospitals, other institutional health services, and long-term care in G.B. is drawn from general taxation. Stays in chronic stay wards are funded by the National Health Service (NHS). Responsibility for providing long-term care to elders is divided along health and social care lines. Home- and community-based long-term health care (i.e., the medical component, including visiting nurses and physiotherapy) is paid for by the NHS, whereas long-term social care (i.e.,the personal care component) such as toileting, dressing, bathing, and meals is funded or provided or both funded and provided by local authorities (i.e., local government). G.B. also has a system of paying cash allowances to very dependent elders and offers a nominal care-givers allowance.
Differing systems of health care in these two countries allow certain questions about the efficacy of LTC policy in the
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