关于学习中的质量差异：结果和过程外文翻译资料

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附外文文献原文1

ON QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCES IN LEARNING :

I-OUTCOME AND PROCESS*

BY F. MARTON AND R. SALJd

(Institute of Education, University of Gcteborg, Sweden)

SUMMARY. This paper describes an attempt to identify different levels of process- ing of information among groups of Swedish university students who were asked to read substantial passages of prose. Students were asked questions about the meaning of the passages and also about how they set about reading the passages. This approach allows processes and strategies of learning to be examined, as well as the outcomes in terms of what is understood and remembered. The starting point of this research was that learning has to be described in terms of its content.

From this point differences in what is learned, rather than differences in how much is learned, are described. It was found that in each study a number of categories (levels of outcome) containing basically different conceptions of the content of the learning task could be identified. The corresponding differences in level of processing are described in terms of whether the learner is engaged in surface-level or deep-level processing.

INTRODUCTION

IN research on the psychology of learning the outcome of learning is commonly described in quantitative terms as a total number of correct answers to a test. Similarly intra - and inter-individual differences and differences which result from experimental manipulation are normally merely referred to as variations in the number of correct answers obtained. In a recently completed research project concerning learning at university level we found a great deal of evidence of the inadequacy of the traditional method of describing the outcomes of learning. Both for instructional purposes and for the understanding of lsquo;what it takes to learnrsquo;,a description of what the students learn is preferable to the description of how much they learn. We have repeatedly found examples of distinctive qualitative differences in how students grasped or comprehended ideas and principles, which were presented in their set books or in texts of a similar kind used as material for learning in experimental settings.

In our view a prerequisite for an analysis of what is learned is that one must take into account the content of the learning task or the discourse. This is necessary since our main interest is to describe how this same learning material (content) is comprehended by different subjects, that is, the individual meanings which students assign to a particular text, principle, idea and so on.

QUALITATIVE DIFFERENCES IN THE OUTCOME OF LEARNING

This paper is intended to provide an outline of the experimental procedure adopted in a series of studies reported in more detail elsewhere (Marton, 1975a, 1975b; Saljo, 1975; Dahlgren, 1975). In essence, groups of students were asked to act as paid volunteers. Each student, individually, was asked to read one or more passages of prose within suggested time limits, and was subsequently asked specific questions about the passage and, in some experiments, was also asked to explain to the experimenter what the passage was about. The conversation, which was recorded, allowed the experimenter subsequently to study the whole pattern of the response, including hesitations and various attempts at recalling different aspects of the passage which had been read. The student was then given a series of open questions to elicit how he had tackled the process of reading, and asked to answer a series of specific questions designed to assess what had been understood.

In one of our experiments we asked 40 female first termers to read three incomplete chapters from Coombs : The World Educational Crisis: A Systems Analysis (1971, Swedish edition). The basic aim of the third of these chapters is to give the reader a thorough understanding of the effects of education on individuals and society-the output of educational systems. The point which the author wants to make in this connection can be seen from the following quotation:

“It is impossible to measure with any presently known gauge the full output and eventual impact of an educational system. Some sense of what is involved can be grasped if we imagine a school whose whole output consists of a single student. On the day he graduates, what kind of an output does he embody? The answer is that he embodies a multiplicity of outputsrepresented, for instance, in the facts and concepts he has learned, the style of thinking he has acquired, and also such changes as may have occurred in his outlook, values, ambitions, and personal conduct. If one then asks how all this will affect the future life of this student, his family and society, the difficulty is several times compounded. Such cause and effect relationships are often as indistinct as a line drawn through water. But if these matters are hard to get at in the case of a single student, they are infinitely more elusive when the matter to be judged is the output represented by multiple streams of individuals, flowing through different educational channels for different lengths of time.”（Coombs，1968，p.64）

In subsequent pages Coombs argues against the simplified notion of output of educational systems as being equal to the number of people who pass their exams. He stresses the need for a large number of criteria in assessing the real influence of education on society.

In order to check whether the students had understood what the author wanted to say with regard to the output of educational systems the following question was posed:

“What is meant by the output of an educational system? ”The words us

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