附录B 外文原文
Muslim customs surrounding death, bereavement, postmortem examinations, and organ transplants
Muslims are always buried, never cremated. It is a religious requirement that the body be ritually washed and draped before burial, which should be as soon as possible after death. Those carrying out this duty should be immunised against hepatitis B and be aware of the hazards of AIDS. Muslim women never attend burials and it is rare for funeral directors to be involved. Muslim jurists from the Arab world can justify organ transplantation, but those from the Indian subcontinent are against it. They are united in the belief of the sacredness of the human body and thus deplore postmortem examinations.
There are over 1-5 million Muslims in the United Kingdom, of whom well over 600 000 are from Pakistan and Bangladesh.Most of the rest are from India. Muslims form the largest non-Christian religious group in the United Kingdom, encompassing 43% of the Asian population from the Indian subcontinent.Behaviour surrounding death as expected by the Muslim faith is generally adhered to in Britain. Most of the customs followed have been laid down in the Shariah (Muslim laws) which are derived from the Hadith (practices and sayings of the prophet Mohammed) rather than the Koran.
Although Islam recognises no intermediary between humans and God, such as a clergy, there are special committees in the Indian subcontinent that decide on matters such as the burial in sacred ground of a person who has committed suicide. Ulamas (high ranking Muslim jurists) guide the Muslim world on the interpretation of the Koran and the Hadith.
Death
Muslims prefer to die in their own homes. They believe in the day of judgment and the life hereafter, and that on approaching ones death it is important to ask for forgiveness of violations against humans before asking for forgiveness from God for sins committed.
It is a religious recommendation that an ill person, whether an acquaintance or a stranger, be visited. This is considered a form of worship and 'mercy' is showered on the visitor. Thus a Muslim dying in hospital will have many visitors. When death is near relatives give holy water (zam zam) to drink, and verses from the Koran are read. The dying person is encouraged to recite and redeclare his or her faith.
Prolongation of life by artificial means (such as a life support machine) is strongly disapproved of unless there was evidence that a reasonable quality of life would result. In hospital a great deal of anxiety may be created by certain beliefs-for example, if a baby has died in utero and if no immediate delivery is effected the mother may believe that she herself is going to die.
When a Muslim dies in hospital a great deal of anxiety may follow as a result of medical attendants being unfamiliar with Muslim rites. Ideally, the face of the person who has died should be turned towards Mecca, but in hospital turning the face towards the right should be sufficient. The arms and legs should be straightened and the mouth and eyes closed. All clothes should be removed by a person of the same sex and the body covered with a sheet. A baby dying at or before birth has to have a name. When a Muslim patient dies it is a religious requirement that the corpse be ritually bathed before burial. A stillborn baby will not require a full funeral service and in theory does not necessarily have to be buried in a cemetery. Neither the ritual wash nor the usual shrouding is required in such cases. For practical purposes in British hospitals stillbirths can be dealt with as live births.
POSTMORTEM EXAMINATIONS
If a postmortem examination has to be performed or death has occurred just before the weekend greater distress is caused because of the extra waiting. Postmortems are not allowed by religion-this is because the body is sacred and belongs to God6-but when the law of the country demands it there is no alternative. Generally, religious opinion is against dissection of bodies for learning and anatomy.For the following reasons attempts should be made to release the body to the relatives as soon as possible.
Firstly, it is a religious requirement that the body be buried as quickly as possible. Secondly, it is felt that any person who died was obviously loved by his or her family and if decay sets in, then that loved one could become repulsive (Muslim bodies are not embalmed.). This is particularly important in the hot countries from which most Muslims in the United Kingdom come. Thirdly, Muslim communities are so closely knit that 200-300 people may visit the home of the deceased, often from long distances-many of them eating and sleeping there. (Within a few hours of the death of a Muslim most of the community of that town and indeed of other towns will become aware of this, through relatives and announcements in mosques.) Thus, the longer the body remains unburied the greater the burden and distress to the family.
Finally, as a mark of respect the immediate relatives may not eat until after the funeral.
WASHING AND SHROUDING
It may take up to an hour to wash and drape the body in a simple white cloth, which is in three pieces. This cloth may have been prepared by the deceased during his or her lifetime. Usually two people are needed for this procedure, which is carried out by those of the same sex as the deceased, except for a child up to the age of 8 years. Private parts are covered with a sheet and never exposed during the wash. Gloves are usually worn and a sponge used.
The washing and draping of the body is carried out by respected elders experienced in rules of Muslim burial. It would seem prudent to protect them from hepatitis B by active immunisation. This would beparticularly relevant if death had resulted from an accident and signs ofblood
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附录A 译文
围绕死亡,丧亲之痛,死后测试和器官移植的穆斯林习俗
穆斯林人总是选择直接埋葬,不选择火化这种方法。在死亡之后尸体应该尽快的被清洗并且被覆盖,因为这是一个宗教性的仪式。那些执行此操作的值班人员应接种乙型肝炎的疫苗并且要认识到艾滋病的危害。穆斯林的妇女不被允许参加葬礼,对于葬礼的执行人的参与,这也是十分罕见的。来自阿拉伯大陆的穆斯林法学家赞成能器官移植的观点,但是来自印度次大陆的法学家却反对这个观点。他们在人类的身体上有神圣的信仰,因此他们赞同对尸体进行检测。
在英国有超过150万的穆斯林人,其中60万的人是来自巴基斯塔和孟加拉共和国。其余的大部分都是来自印度。构成穆斯林的最大部分的是英国非基督教的宗教团体,他们来自印度次大陆,占亚洲人口的43%。预期死亡的行为是英国的穆斯林人普遍遵守与信仰的。大部分的风俗习惯都是来自伊斯兰教(回教的法律)的圣训(实践,先知穆罕默德的话语)而不是古兰经。
虽然伊斯兰教不承认介于人类和上帝之间的人,如牧师,在印度次大陆有特殊的委员会,他们负责判定埋葬在圣地上的自杀的人和事。学者(穆斯林法学家的高排名)在穆斯林世界指南中的古兰经和圣训的解释。
死亡
穆斯林人宁愿死在自己的家里。他们相信在审判日当天和以后的日子里,在接近他们一个人的死亡的时候,重要的是要请求上帝宽恕他们当时所犯下的罪,然后再请求宽恕对人类的侵犯。
这是一个宗教性的建议,一个生病的人无论是熟人还是陌生人,都要享受被探望的待遇。这是给客人的也被作认为是一种崇拜和“慈悲”。 因此,在医院死亡的穆斯林人将会有许多的探望者。当死亡接近他们亲属的时候便提供圣水(扎姆扎姆)给他们喝,并且提供古兰经给他们阅读。垂死的人就会被鼓励背诵并声明他或她生前的信仰。
通过人工的手段来延长生命的(如生命维持的机器)是遭到强烈反对的,除非有证据表明它会提供一个合理的生活质量。在医院里,许多焦虑的产生可能是由某些信念造成的,例如,如果一个母亲没有立即分娩,婴儿在母亲的子宫内死亡,母亲可能会认为她自己也会死。
当一名穆斯林人在医院死亡时,由于医疗人员对穆斯林仪式的不熟悉,他们可能会产生极大的焦虑。理想的情况是,死去的人的应该面朝麦加,但在医院通常的状况是转向右边的。死者的胳膊和腿应该是挺直了的,嘴巴和眼睛应该是闭着的。死者身上所穿戴的所有的衣服都应该被同一性别的人来移除,并且应该用床单来盖住死者的身体。在出生前或出生时死亡的婴儿都必须有一个名字。当一个穆斯林病人死亡的时候,按照他们的一个宗教要求来说在安葬仪式前都应该将遗体沐浴。一个由于死产的婴儿将不需要一个完整的殡葬服务而且在理论上来说也不一定要葬在公墓里。无论是按照以前的仪式来清洗或者按照通常的这样的情况下死婴都需要被用东西所覆盖。实际上在英国得一些医院死胎可作为活产婴儿的方式来处理。
尸体检查
如果在周末之前死亡并且尸体检查必须执行,那么等待将会造成更大的痛苦。尸体解剖是不被宗教允许的,这是因为身体是神圣的,是属于上帝的,但是当法律要求它时是别无选择的。一般来说,宗教观点反对解剖身体用来研究分析。基于以下原因,应尽快把尸体归还亲属。
首先,这是一个宗教的要求,尸体要尽快被埋葬。其次,他们认为任何人即使死了也会被他们的亲人深爱着,但是如果开始腐烂,他们所爱之人就会变得令人厌恶。(穆斯林的身体不用防腐药物保存。)。这是特别重要的,大多数穆斯林来自联合国的热点国家。第三,穆斯林社区的如此的紧密。200~300人可能会拜访已故的人的家,他们会从很远的地方过来,吃住在这里。(在一个穆斯林死亡后的数小时内,该镇和其他城镇的大多数社区都会通过亲属和清真寺院里的讣告知道这事。)因此,身体长时间的没有被埋葬对家人来说是更大的负担和痛苦。
最后,作为尊重的标志,直系亲属在葬礼结束后不得进食。
清洗和覆盖
它可能需要花一个小时的时间去清洗并且用一个简单的白色的布去遮盖尸体,这是三步中的其中一步。这布可能是由死者生前准备的。通常这一程序需要两个人,由和死者同性的人实施,除了年龄没有达到8岁的孩子。下身被一块在清洗后没有暴露过的床单覆盖,擦拭通常用旧的手套和用过的海绵。
清洗和遮盖尸体是由经历了穆斯林葬礼规则的德高望重的长者实施的。这似乎是慎重的通过有效的免疫来保护他们免受乙型肝炎。如果死亡是由意外事故导致并且身上有明显的血液迹象那么这是特别有关的。严格来说,只有妻子、丈夫、母亲、哥哥、姐姐、父亲、祖父母、孩子和孙子可以看到死者的脸,不应该在覆盖后再揭露。在现实中,这些规则没有被严格遵守。
葬礼
穆斯林人总是被埋葬,而从不被火化。一个治丧委员会的成员们往往会收集死亡证明并且为葬礼做准备,这样做的目的就是为了消除穆斯林人直系亲属的疑虑。葬礼中的棺材都是被做成没有任何修饰的木质盒子并且被社区的人所保存。英国建造的许多清真寺里都有一个“冷藏室”来保护尸体。正对着对麦加的地方是一个用于短期存储的房间,在那里,死者的亲属,坐在棺材的周围进行祈祷。根据宗教规定,在英国通常是用木制的棺材进行埋葬,但是穆斯林人宁愿不选择这个来埋葬他们的死者。在英国的有一些地方的政府(例如,巴特利和迪斯伯里)都允许这种做法。
宗教法律不允许穆斯林妇女参加葬礼,即使他们中的一个女性亲戚或婴儿死了,他们都不会在葬礼中出现。这是由于他们相信女人是“微弱的心”,很容易被打破。虽然在其他的一些时候,一些在访问这个实际情况的时候认为这个是否应该受到宗教性的谴责。虽然,挖掘坟墓的是掘墓人,但是,表面所填充的泥土是由亲属们所完成。坟墓是通过这样的方式挖掘的,死者的脸是朝向麦加方向的。
因为身体是神圣不可轻犯的,它不应该被死者的家人所抛弃,因此殡仪业人员参加穆斯林人的葬礼是十分罕见的。通常来说一辆家庭轿车或者小货车都是被用来运送死者身体去墓地的虽然,在英国的什叶派,相对于逊尼派穆斯林来说小了点,但是他们的组织却很好,有自己的“灵车”(在伯明翰,在周末里有议定的葬礼)。什叶派和逊尼派穆斯林与死亡相关的宗教习俗有点相似。
因为在英国它是不可能严格遵守所有的伊斯兰的规则来埋葬,一些家庭(特别是巴基斯坦人)带着死者的身体回到自己的家乡,在这种情况下,用防腐剂浸泡尸体最后再来举行葬礼。这种惯例,在英国,当地的领导人反对这种方式来埋葬但是穆斯林宗教领袖却鼓励用这种方式来埋葬死者。运送尸体需要官僚的同意而被耽搁,这进一步加剧了亲属的痛苦。如果英国地方当局允许遵守伊斯兰规则,(举个例子,葬礼上没有棺椁)那么穆斯林葬在家乡自然也会减少。葬礼上的侍从头戴帽子或者脱帽是作为尊敬的标志。在联合王国穆斯林被埋葬在一个单独的地区,在小镇或城市为他们指定公共墓地。那些参加葬礼的人面对面站成两排,棺材举过他们的肩膀,棺材庄严地被径直抬向坟墓。至于小孩的话,棺材通过他亲人的手臂来支撑。葬礼结束后,一个“觉醒”的活动被男女双方所举行,通常在同一天,会以举行宴会的形式来招待参加葬礼的人。
如果穆斯林在没有亲戚或朋友的情况下死去,这个城市的穆斯林社区的长老会自费安排仪式的洗礼和葬礼。
丧亲之痛
最初的丧期长达三天,期间在家祈祷朗诵几乎不断。公开的仪式只能男人参加。根据宗教法律,一名穆斯林妻子在丈夫去世后4个月内仍将待在家中,如果她怀孕了,那么直到怀孕结束。在丈夫去世前确定怀孕的进展是重要的。大多数穆斯林妇女在联合王国遵守这些除非她们或者已经成为经济支柱,在这种情况下,有一个宗教的分配。
在进入刚刚丧失亲人的房间之前脱掉鞋子,以及按照惯例的在谈论死者的时候用手遮盖自己的头。人们常常坐在地毯上吊唁。传统上,在丧失亲人期间,黑色的衣服和面纱没有穿戴,大多数人穿朴素简单的衣服,没有化妆或戴珠宝。他们不习惯送花圈或者鲜花,也没有募捐或者捐赠。
扩大家庭的关系网为丧失亲人的人提供了大量的支持,因为家庭成员自然的亲近,并通过交流体验孤独的感觉,孤独会是不常见的。大多数穆斯林对一个人的死亡有宗教上的解释,尤其是孩子的死亡。罪恶是丧亲之痛的共同组成部分,它被纳入到悲伤的过程,这得公开地处理。宗教鼓励分享悲伤,并且提供了赦免自己罪行的方法。这应该在任何意见尝试之前先被赞赏。
器官移植
作为器官移植一直没有在古兰经和圣训中作出明确处理,学者之间也有不同的意见。来自阿拉伯国家的人认为这是允许的,但那些来自印度次大陆的人认为,器官移植是不允许的,因为人的生命是神圣的;人的身体被委托给一个人,因此不再属于他或她;而且器官移植会导致器官非法交易,穷人会受害。
在1967年,当Razur Rahman在巴基斯坦伊斯兰研究学院担任主任的时候,他觉得要实施惩罚关于眼睛移植的原则;“活着的人的需要优先于死去的人。”领先的学者对这个表示怀疑并没有同意。虽然,在穆斯林的倡导者的话中,“破坏一个死了的人的骨头相当于在他活着的时候破坏他的骨头。”早在1952年,埃及伊斯兰法学院的最高负责人就表示,如果对人类来说是“好”的话,那么“必要的承认什么是禁止的。”这样的规定允许器官移植,只要满足下列条件:移植是唯一的治疗方式;移植成功的可能性很高;得到供体的同意或者获得近亲的同意;供体死亡已经由一个有名望的穆斯林医生确定;或者对活体供者没有迫近的危险;接受者已经了解手术的操作情况以及手术的意义。捐赠给一个穆斯林应该是为了挽救他或她的生命,除非不能从穆斯林那里获得那么器官就从非穆斯林那里接受。
器官捐献在穆斯林国家是一个理论的问题,因为他们通常有一个非常基本的医疗服务,移植采取非常低的优先级。巴基斯坦高级穆斯林法学家建议,器官捐赠是不允许的。(MY Sacha,个人的交流)然而,在同情和了解情况下下,反对意见常常可以被克服。例如,在骨髓移植过程中没有器官捐献。
讨论关于器官移植应该由移植团队展开:其他专业人士过去曾向双亲传达互相矛盾的意见,这导致病人无法接受治疗。该个团队应包括在亚洲社区工作的联络官,为需要器官移植的患者家属提供建议和支持,以及那些接受过移植手术的家庭的孩子。在伯明翰,有器官移植的孩子的父母帮助团队去与可能的移植家庭进行讨论。伊斯兰法律允许紧急输血。
总结
我强调了一些以英国的穆斯林患者为主的死亡的事件,他们中的大部分来自于印度,巴基斯坦和孟加拉。这可能与阿拉伯当地的穆斯林会有一些不同,最大的疑虑就是丧亲之痛和器官移植;但是其他问题都是严格的坚持并贯穿整个穆斯林世界。
附录B 外文原文
Muslim customs surrounding death, bereavement, postmortem examinations, and organ transplants
Muslims are always buried, never cremated. It is a religious requirement that the body be ritually washed and draped before burial, which should be as soon as possible after death. Those carrying out this duty should be immunised against hepatitis B and be aware of the hazards of AIDS. Muslim women never attend burials and it is rare for funeral directors to be involved. Muslim jurists from the Arab world can justify organ transplantation, but those from the Indian subcontinent are against it. They are united in the belief of the sacredness of the human body and thus deplore postmortem examinations.
There are over 1-5 million Muslims in the United Kingdom, of whom well over 600 000 are from Pakistan and Bangladesh.Most of the rest are from India. Muslims form the largest non-Christian religious group in the United Kingdom, encompassing 43% of the Asian population from the Indian subcontinent.Behaviour surrounding death as expected by the Muslim faith is generally adhered to in Britain. Most of the customs followed have been laid down in the Shariah (Muslim laws) which are derived from the Hadith (practices and sayings of the prophet Mohammed) rather than the Koran.
Although Isl
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